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... Stratified random sampling (STRS) and sampling proportional to size (PPS) methods were compared for estimating (95% CI) annual total redd counts (Scheaffer et al. 1996). The two spawning areas were composed of the primary strata that were further stratified based on historical site use as follows. ...

... For STRS, Neyman allocation (Scheaffer et al. 1996) was used to determine how to allocate the 25 sites to be surveyed among the five usage site categories within each spawning area. Neyman allocation uses the variances within each stratum; consequently strata with high variance require more survey effort due to the uncertainty associated with high variance and strata with low variances require less survey effort (Scheaffer et al. 1996). ...

... For STRS, Neyman allocation (Scheaffer et al. 1996) was used to determine how to allocate the 25 sites to be surveyed among the five usage site categories within each spawning area. Neyman allocation uses the variances within each stratum; consequently strata with high variance require more survey effort due to the uncertainty associated with high variance and strata with low variances require less survey effort (Scheaffer et al. 1996). A total of 25 sites for the survey simulations were randomly drawn from the simulation data set with replacement 1000 times to make 1000 redd count estimates for each spawning area and year. ...

• Phillip Groves
• Brad Alcorn
• Michelle M Wiest
• William P. Connor

Unmanned aircraft systems (UASs) were tested for counting Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) redds as a more accurate, safer alternative to manned helicopter flights. Counting redds from the helicopter was less expensive and time consuming, but of the total redds counted at selected sites with a UAS, an average (± SD) of only 77% ± 14% was counted from the helicopter. A river-wide census of redds was not possible with a UAS because the study area was too large for the single field crew to survey. Simulation analyses were used to compare stratified random sampling (STRS) and sampling proportional to size (PPS) for estimating annual total redd counts from data collected with a UAS. The STRS estimates were more accurate and precise, whereas the PPS estimates, though biased, had 95% CIs that included the observed redd count more frequently. We strongly recommend that researchers conduct simulation analyses to evaluate alternative survey sampling methods if they are considering replacing census counts made from manned aircraft with counts estimated from data collected with a UAS. We conclude that UAS application reduces the risk inherent to manned aircraft flights, but the reduction in risk can come at the cost of estimates of population parameters that can sometimes be inaccurate and lack 95% CI coverage.

... Thus, six methods of analysis were studied for the estimation of aboveground, belowground, and total biomass. Of these, three methods considered the sampling design strictly in two stages [8,21,22], and three in one step, assuming that the variance between SSUs was negligible [12,23,24]. ...

... In the original sample of 69 PSUs, there were 18 PSUs smaller than 5 SSUs. The analysis was conceptualised under the theory of cluster sampling of unequal sizes [22,27,28]. Even the application of method 3 considered the average of the means of PSUs of different sizes. ...

In the assessment of natural resources, such as forests or grasslands, it is common to apply a two-stage cluster sampling design, the application of which in the field determines the following situations: (a) difficulty in locating secondary sampling units (SSUs) precisely as planned, so that a random pattern of SSUs can be identified; and (b) the possibility that some primary sampling units (PSUs) have fewer SSUs than planned, leading to PSUs of different sizes. In addition, when considering the estimated variance of the various potential estimators for two-stage cluster sampling, the part corresponding to the variation between SSUs tends to be small for large populations, so the estimator's variance may depend only on the divergence between PSUs. Research on these aspects is incipient in grassland assessment, so this study generated an artificial population of 759 PSUs and examined the effect of six estimation methods, using 15 PSU sample sizes, on unbiased and relative sampling errors when estimating aboveground, belowground, and total biomass of halophytic grassland. The results indicated that methods 1, 2, 4, and 5 achieved unbiased biomass estimates regardless of sample size, while methods 3 and 6 led to slightly biased estimates. Methods 4 and 5 had relative sampling errors of less than 5% with a sample size of 140 when estimating total biomass.

... As opposed to SRS, stratified sampling is usually used to increase the efficiency of sampling designs [4,5]. Stratified sampling classifies a population under study into mutually exclusive subgroups, called strata, and chooses a sample from each stratum. ...

... Therefore, the variability of sample estimates by the proposed sampling method was lower than the estimates made by SRS. The more homogeneous the cluster, the more efficient the sampling design [4,5,22]. This innovative way to define strata based on clustering methods is an efficient alternative to conventional stratified sampling. ...

Background Sampling a small number of participants from an entire country is not straightforward. In this case, researchers reluctantly sample from a single setting or few settings, which limits the generalizability of findings. Therefore, there is a need to design efficient sampling method for small sample size surveys that can produce generalizable results at the country level. Methods Data comprised of twenty proxy variables to measure health services demands, structures, and outcomes of 413 districts of Iran. We used two data mining methods (hierarchical clustering method (HCM) and model-based clustering method (MCM)) to create homogenous groups of districts, i.e., strata based on these variables. We compared the internal and stability validity of the methods by statistical indices. An expert group checked the face validity of the methods, particularly regarding the total number of strata and the combination of districts in each stratum. The efficiency of selected method, which is measured by the inverse of variance, was compared with a simple random sampling (SRS) through simulation. The sampling design was tested in a national study in Iran, which aimed to evaluate the quality and costs of medical care for eight selected diseases by only recruiting 300 participants per disease at the country level. Results MCM and HCM divided the districts into eight and two clusters, respectively. The measures of internal and stability validity showed that clusters created by MCM were more separated, compact, and stable, thus forming our optimum strata. The probability of death from stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and in-hospital mortality rate were the most important indicators that distinguished the eight strata. Based on the simulation results, MCM increased the efficiency of the sampling design up to 1.7 times compared to SRS. Conclusions The use of data mining improved the efficiency of sampling up to 1.7 times greater than SRS and markedly reduced the number of strata to eight in the entire country. The proposed sampling design also identified key variables that could be used to classify districts in Iran for sampling from these target populations in the future studies.

... Dado que el porcentaje de conglomerados incompletos del INFyS de México, en algunos casos, es superior al 10 % a nivel estatal, poco se ha explorado sobre cuáles son las consecuencias que el uso de conglomerados de distinto tamaño tiene en la precisión de las estimaciones , Velasco et al. 2005. Si existe variación notable entre los tamaños de los conglomerados y si estos están altamente correlacionados con los totales de los conglomerados, la varianza del total basada en la media muestral es generalmente mayor que la varianza basada en un estimador que considere el tamaño de los conglomerados como variable auxiliar (Lohr 2010, Scheaffer et al. 2012. Un ejemplo de esto es el estimador Razón de Medias (RM), que se recomienda cuando la varianza de la variable de interés es proporcional a la variable auxiliar. ...

... [6] donde, Estimador RM (Cochran 1993, Scheaffer et al. 2012). El estimador de razón tiene la misma estructura que el estimador VAN, el cual también puede ser usado cuando se presentan conglomerados incompletos, a saber: ...

Throughout the data of the National Forest and Soil Inventory (INFyS) of Mexico, it is not uncommon to find clusters with less than four subplots (incomplete). The consequences of this condition on the forest parameters estimates are yet to be completely analyzed. The main objective of this work was to compare the behavior of different sampling estimators under such conditions of cluster completeness. Using an artificial population of 9,370,000 trees, created on a 10,000 ha surface, a total of 88 systematic sampling grids using four-plot circular clusters were set. Each grid had 81 clusters, separated by 1 km. On each sampling grid, three different completeness conditions were tested: a) full completeness (all clusters with four subplots) b) 88 % completeness and c) 63 % completeness. On each condition, timber volume (m3 ha-1) and tree density (tree ha-1) were estimated using the following estimators: 1) Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) 2) Van Deusen Estimators 3) Means of ratio and 4) Ratio of means. The estimators were evaluated using relative bias on the mean and the variance. For volume, on each of the three completeness conditions, the mean estimates were similar and unbiased using the proposed four estimators. Nevertheless, the FIA estimator produced biased variance estimates ranging from two to five times larger for 88% and 63% completeness respectively. Similar behavior was observed on tree density. The FIA estimators will produce biased results on the variance estimator when a high percentage of clusters is incomplete.

... De una población de 450 fincas productoras de cacao, se tomó una muestra irrestricta aleatoria (n=81) (Scheaffer et al., 1987). Para evaluar la sustentabilidad de cada una de las fincas, se usó el "Análisis Multicriterio", metodología propuesta por Sarandón et al. (2006). ...

Background. Cocoa is a traditional crop and source of economic income for Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas, Ecuador. Objective. The objective of this research was to evaluate the sustainability of cocoa-producing farms in the province of Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas, Ecuador. Methodology. The methodology used to evaluate sustainability was a "Multicriteria Analysis". To obtain information on each of the cocoa farms, a personal survey was conducted with questions related to the three dimensions of sustainability (economic, ecological, sociocultural). Indicators, sub-indicators and quantifiable variables adapted to cocoa cultivation were used to analyze each dimension and general sustainability. Results. In this study, it was found that the number of sustainable farms were different from one locality to another, corresponding to the locality of San Jacinto del Búa, the highest number of sustainable farms. At the province level, almost half of cocoa producers (48%) have sustainable farms, that is, they had the three indicators (IK, IE, ISC) and the general sustainability index (I Gen), with values higher than two. Implications. In the general analysis of sustainability, one can find "critical points", at the level of the cocoa sector, such as education and economic risk; but at the farm level, it would be the diversity of nutrient production and recycling. The need to work and eliminate these "critical points" is important, since it would allow sustainability to be achieved on farms that have not yet achieved it, and maintain it for those that have already achieved it. However, the sustainability graphs are very illustrative since in all cases, triangles are drawn with the three sides of practically similar size, which suggests a balance between the three dimensions in said system and is the graph that would best represent the idea of sustainability, as it suggests an equal assessment of the three dimensions of sustainability. Conclusions. The sustainability of cocoa-producing farms varies from one place to another and the factors that explain it are also different. The largest number of sustainable farms are found in the town of San Jacinto del Búa; but at the level of the province of Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas, less than half of the farms are sustainable. The main "critical points", at the level of the cocoa sector, are education and economic risk; but at the farm level, it is the diversity of nutrient production and recycling. In the three localities and in the province, sustainability graphs a triangle with three sides of practically similar size, which suggests a balance between the three dimensions, that is, an equal assessment of the three dimensions of sustainability.

... Para determinar la composición de especies, se identifican hasta el nivel taxonómico más bajo todos los individuos presentes en una submuestra de 2,5 kg de camarón y otra del 20 % del descarte, mientras que la captura incidental se identifica y pesca en su totalidad. Con esta información, se determina la magnitud y composición de la CO, CI y D para cada lance y se estima el cociente fauna acompañante/captura objetivo (FA/CO) por años y pesquería, mediante el método del estimador de la proporción (Scheaffer et al., 1990;Levy y Lemeshow, 1991), siguiendo los criterios sugeridos por Ye (2002). ...

El Plan de Gestión de las Capturas Incidentales y Descartes en la Pesquería de Arrastre de Camarón en Colombia se enmarca en el proyecto "Gestión sostenible de la captura incidental en las pesquerías de arrastre de América Latina y el Caribe (REBYC-II LAC)" y cuenta con una actualización del estado de las poblaciones de camarón y el impacto sobre la biodiversidad, con fines de generar una ruta de trabajo hacia el manejo de estas pesquerías. Con base en un trabajo participativo realizado en dos pesquerías artesanales y una industrial, se construyeron tres planes de gestión aplicando el enfoque de ecosistemas; es decir se proponen acciones de manejo para alcanzar prácticas de pesca sostenible, balanceando metas de bienestar ecológico y bienestar humano a través de una buena gobernanza. Adicionalmente, el Plan contribuye directamente al Objetivo de Desarrollo Sostenible sobre Vida Submarina (ODS 14), en el sentido de apoyar la medición de indicadores sobre estado de las poblaciones pesqueras, la reducción del impacto ambiental de la pesca y la pesca no regulada así como asegurar los derechos de acceso de los pescadores artesanales.

... The colony extraction method, which extracts clusters, a set of observation units, under realistic constraints, such as survey cost and time, is commonly used in large-scale surveys. In particular, when observation units within a colony are very similar, a two-stage colony extraction method is preferred, in which a part is extracted and examined, instead of all observations in the colony [23,24]. Applying this existing objective research methodology in this paper, a survey was conducted by dividing into two categories: representative hanok design and construction experts, and users (residents) of houses & public facilities. ...

• Mi-Hyang Lee
• Deuk-Youm Cheon
• Seung-Hoon Han

The paper aims to evaluate the psychological factors of the comfort performance of the hanok. This is to guide restoration and improvement in consideration of the intangible variables that provide the quality of the hanok. Through this process, we ultimately intend to build an integrated residential performance evaluation system that includes factors related to the quality of residents' lives, such as the comfort of their surrounding and indoor environment, as well as the functionality and convenience of the hanok, a representative type of Korean traditional architecture. The test method to evaluate the comfort performance of hanok is largely divided into the physical perception element, which is a quantitative indicator, and the psychological cognitive element, which is a qualitative indicator. Physical perceptive factors are composed of nine quantifiable factors that can be measured by numerical values, namely humidity control, condensation, insulation, thermal comfort, air permeability, solar radiation, solar lighting, sound insulation, and air cleanness. This is a perceptual concept of viewing a building as it is, and a quantitative evaluation method of measuring data in the field using environmental sensors and equipment. Psychological cognitive factors that are evaluated based on the experiences of users (residents) living in hanok, are classified into five categories, of scenery, beauty, deodorization, usability, and health. This study was conducted through a questionnaire between experts and users (residents), limited to the psychological factors among methods of evaluating the comfort performance of hanok. As a result, it can be seen that environmental factors are the main variables that influence the degree of satisfaction with the psychological perception factor. This might be a merit factor of general hanok, and weight could be given when creating an integrated standard in the future.

... Using the formulae by Scheaffer 22 and based on 65% coverage of access to water 23 with a precision of 5%, the sample size was calculated to be 350 at the 95% confidence level since we needed a minimum sample of size of 360 pupils. Two data collection tools which were purposely developed for the project were used for the assessments during both surveys. ...

We examined the availability and use of hand washing facilities in public basic schools before and after a 'tippy-tap' intervention project by the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), Ghana in 2017. This descriptive study involved 29 primary and junior high schools selected from six districts in the Volta Region. A total of 316 and 346 pupils aged 9-20 years of age were interviewed in the baseline and end line surveys respectively. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used in estimating outcomes of interest. We found that the availability of hand washing stations increased from 61.1% in the baseline survey to 97.7% in the end line survey. Hand washing after defecation also improved from 68.7% to 82.7%. Among pupils who washed their hands after urinating, there was an increase from 13.6% in the baseline to 30.6% in the end line survey. While 77.2% of the pupils washed their hands before eating in the baseline survey, this decreased to 74.3% in the end line survey. Pupils in the end line survey were also three times more likely to practise hand washing compared to the base line. We conclude that the tippy-tap intervention improved hand washing practices of pupils. The tippy-tap intervention could, therefore, be replicated in other regions of Ghana. In the Volta Region, however, there is a clear need for the installation of more tippy-taps and improved management of existing ones. Schools should also intensify education on hand washing especially before eating. These measures would ensure that Ghana accelerates progress towards meeting the Sustainable Development Goal Six targets of achieving universal and equitable access to adequate water, sanitation, and hygiene by the year 2030.

... Using a stratified probability random sample ( Visser et al., 2000 ;Scheaffer et al., 2012 ), we selected 1000 small woodlot owners and 400 forest professionals to receive the survey. Gatekeepers sent the initial email invitation to their randomly selected members notifying them about the survey, its goals, and the potential benefits to their members in an effort to increase response rate by utilizing a trusted information source to bolster the legitimacy of the survey ( Bartholomew and Smith, 2006 ). ...

Forest stakeholders are a highly heterogeneous group with varied perceptions that are important to consider when engaging in dialog to increase climate change adaptation. We conducted an online survey of two forestry groups in Maine, U.S., classified as (1) forest professionals, and (2) small woodlot owners. We compared their climate change risk perceptions, socio-cultural influences, information sources, self-efficacy, barriers and incentives to adaptation, and management strategies. Small woodlot owners have much less knowledge of adaptation strategies, and greater perceived need for financial incentives, while forest professionals have higher social norms and more interest in market-based incentives. We found that both groups perceived climate change as a strong influencer on forest ecosystems, and that complexity of information was a key barrier to effective adaptation. The similarities that transcend forestry groups highlight several key perceptions of climate change that unify those working in diverse roles and positions. Implications for increasing implementation include framing communication messages to connect with specific audiences, such as discussing climate change in terms of forest health and wildlife concerns.

... The estimated number of medication orders for the four selected areas was previously established by a sample size calculation. The sample size of 301 hospitalized pediatric patients was determined by the formula described by Mendelhall et al. [21] considering the number of admissions in each critical care service and the average of MEs from previous studies [22][23][24]. ...

Background Medication Errors (MEs) are considered the most common type of error in pediatric critical care services. Moreover, the ME rate in pediatric patients is up to three times higher than the rate for adults. Nevertheless, information in pediatric population is still limited, particularly in emergency/critical care practice. The purpose of this study was to describe and analyze MEs in the pediatric critical care services during the prescription stage in a Mexican secondary-tertiary level public hospital. Methods A cross-sectional study to detect MEs was performed in all pediatric critical care services [pediatric emergency care (PEC), pediatric intensive care unit (PICU), neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), and neonatal intermediate care unit (NIMCU)] of a public teaching hospital. A pharmacist identified MEs by direct observation as the error detection method and MEs were classified according to the updated classification for medication errors by the Ruíz-Jarabo 2000 working group. Thereafter, these were subclassified in clinically relevant MEs. Results In 2347 prescriptions from 301 patients from all critical care services, a total of 1252 potential MEs (72%) were identified, and of these 379 were considered as clinically relevant due to their potential harm. The area with the highest number of MEs was PICU (n = 867). The ME rate was > 50% in all pediatric critical care services and PICU had the highest ME/patient index (13.1). The most frequent MEs were use of abbreviations (50.9%) and wrong speed rate of administration (11.4%), and only 11.7% of the total drugs were considered as ideal medication orders. Conclusion Clinically relevant medication errors can range from mild skin reactions to severe conditions that place the patient's life at risk. The role of pharmacists through the detection and timely intervention during the prescription and other stages of the medication use process can improve drug safety in pediatric critical care services.

... We established 72, 500-m long line transects, in 18 clusters of 4 transects each, following a stratified random sampling scheme (Scheaffer et al. 2012). We used the five levels of a spatially explicit ranking of sage-grouse breeding density (Doherty et al. 2010) as strata. ...

Surrogate-species concepts are prevalent in animal conservation. Such strategies advocate for conservation by proxy, wherein one species is used to represent other taxa to obtain a conservation objective. The efficacy of such approaches has been rarely assessed empirically, but is predicated on concordance between the surrogate and sympatric taxa in distribution, abundance, and ecological requirements. Our objective was to identify whether the abundance of a high-profile umbrella species (Greater Sage-Grouse, Centrocercus urophasianus, hereafter sage-grouse) was associated with the abundance of six other members of the avian community for which it is presumed to be a surrogate, including three sagebrush-obligate and three sagebrush-associated songbird species. We predicted that sage-grouse abundance would align most closely with the breeding abundance of other sagebrush-obligate birds. We used two different indices of sage-grouse abundance for comparisons: field-collected counts of fecal pellets (primarily indexing abundance in the nonbreeding season) and a spatially explicit index of breeding population size. Neither index of sage-grouse abundance was consistently predictive of co-occurring songbird abundance, with one species more abundant (Horned Lark [Eremophila alpestris]) and one species less abundant (Vesper Sparrow [Pooecetes gramineus]) where sage-grouse pellet counts were higher, and no relationship evident between songbird abundance and the spatially explicit sage-grouse population index. Ours is one of few assessments of the efficacy of sage-grouse as a surrogate species to consider abundance, and not habitat overlap alone. We suggest that the utility of sage-grouse as a surrogate species likely varies across spatial scales. Within the scale examined here (10–15 ha sites), however, indices of sage-grouse abundance were unreliable proxies for the abundance of six declining songbird species.

... To ensure the representativeness of the population, a sample size was calculated using a standard formula for an unknown population. 16 The parameters were 95% confidence level, an estimation error of 6.2%, and an unknown prevalence of 50% for MetS. From this calculation, the minimum required sample size was 246 individuals. ...

Background: Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a cluster of conditions that increases the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and is related to genetic background, dietary habits, and lifestyle. Anthropometric indices and lipid parameters have been shown to be simple and useful tools in clinical practice for predicting MetS. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the differential magnitudes of anthropometric characteristics (waist circumference and body mass index [BMI]) and lipid parameters, namely, lipid accumulation product (LAP), cardiometabolic index (CMI), and Castelli Risk Index (CRI-I), to estimate MetS, usingappropriate cut-off values, among adults from a public hospital in Yucatan, Mexico. Methods: A cross-sectional study among 250 adults (77 men, 173 women) was carried out in the Regional High Speciality Hospital of the Yucatan Peninsula (HRAEPY) in Merida, Yucatan. MetS was diagnosed using standard criteria (central obesity, arterial hypertension, hyperglycemia, and dyslipidemia), and derived parameters (LAP, CMI, and CRI-I) were calculated. Binary logistic regression analysis-based receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curves were used to predict MetS. Results: Of the 250 participants, 48% had MetS. High prevalences of overweight (35.2%) and obesity (48.8%) were found in the sample. The CMI and LAP were found to be the best parameters in the prediction of MetS in men and women. The optimal cut-off values of the parameters were higher in men and decreased with advancing age. Conclusion: The CMI and LAP were shown to be the most effective indicators to diagnose MetS among adults from Yucatan, Mexico.

... Survey sampling draws n samples from the population D to have a set of samples S where n := |S|. There are several articles and books on survey sam-pling such as (Barnett, 1974;Smith, 1976;Foreman, 1991;Schofield, 1996;Nassiuma, 2001;Chaudhuri & Stenger, 2005;Tillé, 2006;Mukhopadhyay, 2008;Scheaffer et al., 2011;Fuller, 2011;Tillé & Matei, 2012;Hibberts et al., 2012;Singh & Mangat, 2013;Kalton, 2020). It is a field of research in statistics, with many possible future developments (Brick, 2011), especially in distributed networks and graphs (Frank, 2011a;Heckathorn & Cameron, 2017). ...

This paper is a tutorial and literature review on sampling algorithms. We have two main types of sampling in statistics. The first type is survey sampling which draws samples from a set or population. The second type is sampling from probability distribution where we have a probability density or mass function. In this paper, we cover both types of sampling. First, we review some required background on mean squared error, variance, bias, maximum likelihood estimation, Bernoulli, Binomial, and Hypergeometric distributions, the Horvitz-Thompson estimator, and the Markov property. Then, we explain the theory of simple random sampling, bootstrapping, stratified sampling, and cluster sampling. We also briefly introduce multistage sampling, network sampling, and snowball sampling. Afterwards, we switch to sampling from distribution. We explain sampling from cumulative distribution function, Monte Carlo approximation, simple Monte Carlo methods, and Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods. For simple Monte Carlo methods, whose iterations are independent, we cover importance sampling and rejection sampling. For MCMC methods, we cover Metropolis algorithm, Metropolis-Hastings algorithm, Gibbs sampling, and slice sampling. Then, we explain the random walk behaviour of Monte Carlo methods and more efficient Monte Carlo methods, including Hamiltonian (or hybrid) Monte Carlo, Adler's overrelaxation, and ordered overrelaxation. Finally, we summarize the characteristics, pros, and cons of sampling methods compared to each other. This paper can be useful for different fields of statistics, machine learning, reinforcement learning, and computational physics.

... A systematic sample refers to a sample obtained by randomly selecting one unit from the first k units in the sampling Frame and every k th unit thereafter (Mendenhall et al. 1971). This sampling method sees to it that an adult in every second (2 nd ) house was interviewed with the questionnaire. ...

• Benjamin Kwao

Over time, community participation management strategy has been endorsed in forest resource management across the length and breadth of the earth due to the multiple functions and importance attached to the forest to human life. As forest resources remains a very important natural resource for countries like Ghana since most of the poor people living in forested areas tend to be heavily dependent on the resource for their daily livelihoods, continuous depletion of these resources is likely to lead to intense hardship and eventual extinction of the forest in the long term. Very few studies have been conducted in Ghana to evaluate the realities of participatory forest management on the ground therefore this study throws more light on how the participatory forest policies are being implemented on the ground. The study goal was to analyse the process of community participation in the management of the Ahinkwa forest reserve of the Yilo Krobo district. Both quantitative and qualitative research strategies were employed as questionnaires and in-depth interviews were used to collect data from the local people and officials of the forestry commission in the area. Besides the primary data used, secondary data from books, journals and articles were used.From the data collected, it was established that local community members of Ahinkwa depend heavily on the forest resource in order to meet their basic living needs especially firewood as energy source. Females are disadvantage in terms of user rights to the forest resource as 68.8% of the female respondents had to pay money to forest guards when in need of permission to use the resource. Also, a chisquare test at 1% level of significance helped established thesignificant relationship between gender and one's ability to receive benefits from timber firms. 88.5% of the respondents were of the opinion that the forest in the community had not been managed well.The management policy to devolve the management of the resource to local people has not been fully achieved while the forest of Ahinkwa is continually been degraded. Gender disparities still persist in terms of local user rights to the forest resource in the community. There is passive participation of the community in the management of the forest resource. This study presents the realities on the ground about Ghana's Forest Management Policy and points out some of the flaws of the country's management policy therefore recommending ways of improving the effectiveness and efficiency of community participation in local resource management. This study raises questions about the government's commitment to sustainable forest management in the country as policy implementation is superficial.

... To select a sample of rural households who had endured climatic extremes, a multistage stratified random sampling method was performed. The sample size (n = 224) was specified on the basis of the Scheaffer et al. (2012) formula. At the first step, the extended De Martonne climatic classification method was used to categorize the sub-counties into two climatological strata, i.e., 1) cold and semi-arid; and 2) moderate and arid. ...

Climate variability and change have intensely affected agricultural systems, which are the major sources of livelihood for rural families in developing countries. Given the fact that climatic events are projected to become more pervasive, it is necessary to address the resilience of rural households and their complementary choices for adaptation to climate change. Despite raising awareness about the need for enhancing climate resilience among the farm families of developing countries, little is known about the factors that influence their resilience to climate change. Therefore, a survey research was conducted in northeast Iran to serve as a case study in a developing country. A multistage stratified random sampling technique was used to investigate the climate resilience of 224 farm families. While the results revealed low, moderate, and high levels of climate resilience, most farm families were found unable to endure climatic stressors. To enhance climate resilience, most farmers had adopted a combination of absorptive and adaptive measures. Anticipative and transformative measures were less practiced. Age, adaptation strategies, household size, ownership, response efficacy and income were the main drivers of the resilience of farm families to climate extremes. To increase the rural households' resilience against climate change, planning appropriate resilience-building initiatives, designing efficient preventive, absorptive, adaptive and transformative strategies, providing fair technical and financial supports, and increasing rural households' knowledge and information for sustainable management of farms are required.

... Generally, the number of strata is chosen in a fashion that minimizes the variance of the estimator of the population total, which is followed by the optimal allocation of samples within strata. According to Scheaffer et al. (2006), the three factors that determine the best allocation for each stratum are the total number of elements, the associated variability of observations in each stratum and the cost of obtaining an observation from each stratum. ...

Digital camera monitoring is increasingly being used to monitor recreational fisheries. The manual interpretation of video imagery can be costly and time consuming. In an a posteriori analysis, we investigated trade-offs between the reading cost and accuracy measures of estimates of boat retrievals obtained at various sampling proportions for low, moderate and high traffic boat ramps in Western Australia. Simple random sampling, systematic sampling and stratified sampling designs with proportional and weighted allocation were evaluated to assess trade-offs in terms of bias, accuracy, precision, coverage rate and cost in estimating the annual total number of powerboat retrievals in 10,000 jackknife resampling draws. The relative standard error (RSE ± standard deviations) obtained by the sampling designs for sampling proportions from 0.4 onwards were below a 20 % threshold for three of the sampling designs across the three boat ramps. Coverage rates of over 90 % were observed for the confidence intervals for the estimated annual number of powerboat retrievals, with low relative standard errors (RSE < 20 %). Interpreting 40 % of camera footage within a year provided the minimum level to obtain sufficient accuracy measures for all sampling designs considered. The stratified random sampling design with weighted allocation consistently resulted in the smallest variance for estimates of annual powerboat retrievals across the various sampled proportions. These findings have the potential to considerably reduce the cost of manual data interpretation, since operating cost increased linearly with increasing sampling proportion.

... The sample size of the study was calculated as follows with the proportional sampling method based on the assumption that the margin of error can be calculated within a certain confidence interval when information about the population is available and when the population is greater than 100,000 (Mendenhall et al., 1979). ...

• Burhan Başaran

Keywords Traditional food Gastronomy Rize Cultural heritage Tourism Abstract The dramatic changes experienced in several fields in recent years have been threatening traditional foods, which constitute an important part of the cultural heritage. The aim of this study is to determine the perceptions, attitudes, and behaviours of the local people towards traditional foods and gastronomy tourism and to identify the role of gastronomy tourism. A number of 384 consumers who lived in Rize and were above the age of 15 participated in the study. The participants reported that the traditional foods were inseparable parts of the history and culture, therefore, needed to be transferred to the next generation. Further, the participants highlighted the importance of using local raw materials and practicing recognized methods in the production of traditional foods. Further, the region has an important potential for gastronomy tourism, therefore, private institutions, governmental and non-governmental organizations should act cooperatively.

... Since the ethnopharmacological field studies mostly focused on indigenous knowledge [45], we aimed to study the people who practice self-medication, ayurvedic doctors, herbalist headmen of the targeted localities (12 villages), and aged villagers who had average knowledge of local plants. We followed the random sampling method proposed by Weckerle et al. [46] and Bolfarine and Bussab [47] to collect sufficient unbiased samples and used the probabilistic stratified randomized sampling method mentioned by Scheaffer et al. [48]. We also followed Espinosa et al. [49] for the calculation of the estimated total sample size to gain appropriate data from the whole investigated area. ...

Plants and natural products have played a significant role in curing and preventing a variety of ailments occurring in humans and animals, and continue to provide new bioactive leads for researchers in therapeutic discovery. This study was conducted with the aim to identify and document local healers' practices of treating human diseases and quantitatively document indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants, as well as to highlight the species of public interest for bioprospecting potential. A total of 17 field tours were carried out in 12 regions of Jasrota hill and its adjoining areas of Himalaya. Informants (113) were interviewed using semi-structured interviews and discussions and local guided collections. The results were analyzed using ethnobotanical indices-use-reports (URs) and the informant consensus factor (ICF)-and the data were statistically analyzed. The ethnopharmacological uses of 121 plant species belonging to 105 genera and 53 families were reported for use as medicine for treating 93 types of ailments. A total of 4987 URs were mentioned by 113 informants. Fabaceae (90.09%) and Asteraceae (6.62%) were the most represented families. Herbs (46.28%) were the primary sources of medicine, decoction (33.88%) was the most common use method for utilization, and leaves (43.80%) were the most frequently used plant parts. The ICF values ranged from 0.667 to 0.974, with the highest number of species (1314UR, 55 species) being used for the treatment of gastrointestinal ailments (GIA), followed by dermatological disorders (38 species). This result showed that the exchange of knowledge could be evident among the different communities, and their medicinal uses and practices could be correlated.

... The total number available for statistical analysis were 1,005 participants. Using the sample size equation described by Scheaffer, [23] this number was large enough to detect at least the ealier Adenoma Detection Rate (ADR) among Kuwaiti population of 13% as reported by Alenezi [24] at 95% level of confidence, and 2% absolute precision level. ...

Background: Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second most common cancer in women and the third most common in men worldwide, with a significantly rising incidence in the Middle East region over the last few decades. This study investigates the histopathological and epidemiological characteristics of colonoscopic findings in a population with an average risk of CRC in Kuwait. Methods: In this study, 1,005 asymptomatic average-risk Kuwaiti adults aged over 40 years had their first colonoscopy screening during the 2015-2018 period. Data on lifestyle behaviors (cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and physical activity), body mass index (BMI), and comorbidities were routinely collected from these individuals. All colorectal polyps or masses were assessed for their site, size, and number and then resected and sent for histopathological examination. Results: The mean age of the participants was 54 years, and 52.2% were women. In screened individuals, the polyp detection rate, adenoma detection rate, and carcinoma detection rate were 43.8%, 27.7%, and 1.2%, respectively. Tubular, tubulovillous, and villous types of adenoma constituted 17.3%, 2.8%, and 1.3% of all screened participants. Neoplastic lesions, particularly in the proximal colon, were more common among men aged 40-49 years. Age of 70 years and older (OR: 9.6; 95% CI: 4.7-19.9; P < 0.001), male gender (OR: 1.6; 95% CI: 1.1-2.3; P = 0.011), increased BMI (OR: 1.05; 95% CI: 1.02-1.08; P = 0.001), and smoking (OR: 3.5; 95% CI: 2.3-5.4; P < 0.001) were the most significant independent risk factors for colorectal neoplasia. Conclusions: The high adenoma detection rate (ADR) in Kuwaiti population calls for the establishment of a national programe for CRC screening. The higher ADR in those younger than 50 years calls for assessment of the threshold age at which to start screening.

... T e lu k T o n d a n o S e l a t T a n g k i a n Kedua kumpulan populasi tersebut selanjutnya dipilih secara purposive sampling dengan dasar pertimbangan bahwa contoh yang akan diambil masih mempertahankan keterwakilan karakteristik yang beragam (umur, pendidikan, pendapatan, asal negara untuk contoh wisatawan, pengetahuan tentang ekowisata, dan lainnya) dari contoh pada setiap kumpulan. Jumlah contoh (n) untuk setiap kumpulan populasi (masyarakat lokal dan wisatawan) ditentukan dengan menggunakan beberapa persamaan berikut (Scheaffer et al. 1986;Bengen 2000): (2.2) N i = total populasi setiap kumpulan ke-i (orang) n i = jumlah contoh pada setiap kumpulan (orang) ...

• Alimudin Laapo

Taman NAsional Kepulauan Togean berada di Kabupaten Tojo Una-Una Provinsi Sulawesi Tengah diperkirakan memiliki potensi sumberdaya PPK yang cukup besar yakni 211 pulau yang dimanfaatkan untuk kegiatan perikanan dan pariwisata bahari seperti kategori wisata selam, snorkeling, pancing, jelajah hutan alam (trecking) dan hutan mangrove. Kegiatan wisata di Kepulauan Togean telah dilakukan sejak 20 tahun lalu dan semakin berkembang pada pertengahan tahun 1990-an. Jumlah wisman yang berkunjung diperkirakan mencapai 665 orang per bulan. Mengingat obyek wisatanya mengandalkan kealamiahan sumberdaya pulau-pulau kecil, maka pariwisata yang dikelola di wilayah ini lebih menekankan pada kelestarian sumberdaya alam dan kesejahteraan manusia atau biasa diistilahkan sebagai ekowisata. Pengelolaan ekowisata ini mencakup kegiatan yang mensinergikan kelestarian lingkungan (ekologi), sektor penunjang (fisik), kepentingan masyarakat (sosial ekonomi), dan seperangkat aturan berikut pelaksanaannya (kelembagaan).

... The sample studied (n=509) was greater than the calculated sample size (n=384), obtained by the method recommended when the frequency of the event in an infinite population is unknown. 35 For sample calculation, we used: estimated frequency in the population (proportion of women whose cardiovascular risk was assessed by the two methods) equal to 50%, using the maximum possible variability; 95% confidence interval; 5% margin of error; and infinite population size. The following exclusion criteria were adopted: history or clinical evidence of cardiovascular disease, except hypertension; diagnosis of liver or kidney disease; use of corticosteroids or hormone replacement therapy; pregnancy; use of intrauterine device; use of hormonal contraceptives for at least one year; and contraindication to exercise testing according to the III Brazilian Society of Cardiology Guideline for Exercise Testing. ...

... Visitors to the Sinhua Forest Park were selected as participants. Questionnaires were distributed through the convenience sampling method [38]. Visitors under the age of 18 years were excluded to avoid invalid questionnaires. ...

• Wan Yu Liu
• Yo-Zheng Lin
• Chi-Ming Hsieh

Urban forests offer multiple functions: they can balance negative effects from the environment and provide the public with a place for leisure and recreation. Hence, urban forests are crucial to urban ecology and have been widely studied. In addition, relevant study results were applied for policymaking in urban development and forest park management. This study evaluated the ecological value of the Sinhua Forest Park and examined whether the socioeconomic background of participants influences their willingness to pay (WTP) for ecological conservation. Questionnaires were distributed to visitors in the Sinhua Forest Park in Tainan, Taiwan, and the payment card format of the contingent valuation method was employed to evaluate the ecological value. The results showed that the visitors had an annual WTP of $22.01 per person. However, when samples with protest responses were excluded, the WTP rose to $24.58. By considering the total number of visitors of a year, the total ecological value was $1,426,964.14/year and reached $1,593,257.31/year after excluding the protest samples. This study also analyzed participants' within-variable socioeconomic background (e.g., gender and education) and discovered that male participants who are aged 60 years or older, with an education level of senior/vocational high school, and those who visited green spaces two to three times per week presented a high WTP score on average. A Tobit regression model was employed for examination, and the results indicated that participants' education and frequency of visiting green spaces significantly influenced their WTP for the ecological conservation of the Sinhua Forest Park.

... The constructs were measured using a seven-point Likert scale (Appendix A). Some precautions were taken in order to reduce biases that could compromise the validity of the answers: (i) the instruments contained both positive and negative statements and reverse questions in order to keep the respondents attentive; (ii) the questions were presented in a variety of ways; (iii) each construct presented different responses, for example (0 = totally disagree / never / none; 6 = totally agree / every day / all the time); and (iv) the anonymity of the respondents and the companies they work for was ensured to avoid embarrassment or bias in the responses (Scheaffer, Mendenhall, & Ott, 1996). ...

... It was based on a total sample of 402 respondents. Online sample-size calculators, which are based on standard equations used in statistical power analysis and survey sampling techniques [146,147], recommend surveys of representative minimum sample sizes that vary as a function of target population size. At the 95% confidence level, the sample obtained for each age or birth (native or non-native) class in this pilot study provided results with an error margin of 6-12%. ...

The drive towards improving tsunami risk mitigation has intensified along many populated coastlines. Like many islands in the Pacific Ocean, the coastal population of New Caledonia is exposed to tsunamis triggered by powerful earthquakes. Intersecting exhaustive population data with high-resolution building location data within a user-defined coastal fringe is an accurate means of geolocating vulnerable residents, and an important step towards disaster risk reduction. This paper presents a mixed methodology built on GIS-based dasymetric techniques for assessing, classifying, and mapping population distribution in New Caledonia, with the aim of quantifying and ranking the areas most vulnerable to tsunami-related hazards. Results reveal that 33% of the population, inclusive of previously unmapped precarious housing, lives between sea level and the 10 m elevation contour in well-defined clusters. A pilot field survey of 412 respondents was additionally conducted in the capital Nouméa (66% of the nation's population) to assess tsunami awareness, risk perception, and risk-related behavioral patterns among the ethnically and demographically diverse population. By further mapping the spatial association between coastal population concentrations, the perceived natural shielding capacities of coral reefs and mangroves, and the benefits of alarm siren networks, the study delivers a comprehensive assessment of the country's disaster preparedness, with policy recommendations for the future. The methodology is transferable to other types of hazards and other insular settings where civil security and risk-management organizations acquire and curate reliable primary data but may also need guidelines for transforming them into serviceable disaster risk reduction methods and policies.

... Para la construcción de los instrumentos (cuestionario y guía de entrevista), se ejecutaron previamente entrevistas a especialistas y técnicos de diversas entidades públicas que están relacionadas con el estudio y la conservación de la Reserva Nacional del Titicaca (SERNANP, IMARPE-Puno, Gobierno Regional, UNALM); y luego se realizaron seis grupos focales con jefes de familia en los espacios urbano y rural dentro de la zona de amortiguamiento de la RNT. La información obtenida en las entrevistas y grupos focales fue utilizada en el diseño del cuestionario de encuesta tomando en consideración las pautas establecidas en Dillman (2007) y Scheaffer et al. (2012). ...

Se investiga las diferencias en la interacción y la percepción de la problemática ambiental en la Reserva Nacional del Titicaca entre los pobladores rurales y urbanos. Se aplicaron encuestas y entrevistas y se utilizó una prueba de comparación de proporciones. Los resultados evidencian diferencias significativas en el perfil socioeconómico de los pobladores, la interacción rural está asociada con la fuente de recurso para la alimentación y ganado, y en lo urbano la reserva representa una fuente de recreación. La contaminación de la bahía aparece como el problema principal, y en lo rural, se percibe la sobreexplotación de recursos naturales.

... Según el Sistema de Información Nacional Agropecuario, entre los cantones Ventanas, Quevedo, Montalvo, Babahoyo, Vinces, Palenque, Baba, Mocache y Pueblo Viejo, poseen 16899 (UPA) unidad de producción agropecuaria, de maíz. Con el fin de llegar a una muestra representativa, se realizaron 165 encuestas con un nivel de confianza del 90 % obtenido por el método de proporciones, empleando la fórmula propuesta por Scheaffer et al. 24 . ...

... The population, Swedes, was divided into subgroups based on gender, age, and geographical region. Equal proportions of each subgroup were recruited to the survey using simple random sampling [25]. The practical sampling was performed by the survey provider Webropol, using their web panel. ...

Several governments employed digital contact tracing using smartphone apps to combat the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Research shows that privacy concerns hinder the adoption of such apps, while privacy problems which emerged by using them are empirically unknown. This study aims to uncover the dimensions of privacy problems available in digital contact tracing through a survey from 453 citizens in Sweden. Our results show that respondents found privacy problems regarding surveillance, identification, aggregation, secondary use, disclosure, and stigma highly relevant in contact tracing apps. Among demographic factors, younger respondents were generally more concerned about privacy risks than older respondents. This study extends previous literature by revealing privacy problems arising from contact tracing apps.

• Ira Kurniawati
• Moh. Taufik Wahyudi
• Agus Prianto
• Eva Yulistia

span> Currently, real sector business activities are facing severe challenges. The development of ICT and the emergence of the covid-19 pandemic have led to changes in the business environment. Changes in the business environment require businesses to adjust by developing new business strategies, so that their business activities are in line with market demands. This study examines various determinants of readiness to change and their effect on the continuity of MSME activities in the covid-19 affected areas. The results of the study revealed that the new values and attitudes of micro business operators did not support the readiness to change, so they faced the problem of the sustainability of business activities. New values and attitudes are the main factors that shape readiness to change. While the readiness to change is an important factor that determines the sustainability of business activities. In addition, this study revealed that the business environment also as a factor forming change readiness and business continuity. This research recommends the importance of strengthening new values and attitudes for, especially for micro business people; so that they are better prepared to face a change. Future studies need to examine the effect of sudden environmental changes on the sustainability of business activities. </span

• Jordi Giner-Monfort

El document versa sobre els temes inclosos en l'assignatura Socioestadística del Grau de Sociologia

Based on some theoretical results, we recommend a new algorithm for estimating the total and mean of a subpopulation variable for the case of a known subpopulation size, which is different from the algorithm recommended by most of sampling books. The latter usually recommend the multiplication of the subpopulation sample mean by the subpopulation size rather than the subpopulation total estimator for the unknown subpopulation size. We present a criterion to determine which estimator is more efficient. The criterion shows that the traditional total subpopulation estimator for unknown subpopulation size will be more efficient if the subpopulation mean is close to zero. Using an innovative procedure, we develop a new estimator, and we study its properties using real data. The new estimator is potentially an appropriate direct estimator in a composite estimator for small area estimation.

• Agus Prianto
• Ira Kurniati
• Mohammad Taufiq Wahyudi
• Eva Yulistia

p>Currently, real sector business activities are facing severe challenges. The development of ICT and the emergence of the covid-19 pandemic have led to changes in the business environment. Changes in the business environment require businesses to adjust by developing new business strategies, so that their business activities are in line with market demands. This study examines various determinants of readiness to change and their effect on the continuity of MSME activities in the covid-19 affected areas. The results of the study revealed that the new values and attitudes of micro business operators did not support the readiness to change, so they faced the problem of the sustainability of business activities. New values and attitudes are the main factors that shape readiness to change. While the readiness to change is an important factor that determines the sustainability of business activities. In addition, this study revealed that the business environment also as a factor forming change readiness and business continuity. This research recommends the importance of strengthening new values and attitudes for, especially for micro business people; so that they are better prepared to face a change. Future studies need to examine the effect of sudden environmental changes on the sustainability of business activities. Keyword:new values and attitudes, business environment climate, readiness to change, business continuity.</p

The study was conducted to overview the status of the fish hatchery and nursery management adopted in Dhanusha district, Nepal. Most of them running hatcheries as their main occupation and 23% of owners run as a side business. Major species reared by the farmers are craps. Among farmers, 31% of respondents use broodstock from other hatcheries of different places for cross-breeding to reduce stress, inbreeding depression, and increase disease resistance, growth, performance, and production. Among them 62% of respondents do not monitor the pond to check water quality parameters like dissolved oxygen, pH, and turbidity which is a major cause of lower production. The B/C ratio was 1.59 in private and 1.31 in government hatcheries which seems to be economic than other agricultural activities. Besides being a highly economic profession it encountered several problems like flood, predator, and unavailability of feed, hormone, fertilizer, skilled manpower, water shortage, a disease caused by Lernaea, and Argulus. The major market problem was trader monopoly, open border, road inaccessibility, transportation loss, lack of market information, and weak government policy regarding aqua business. There require skillful technicians for breeding fish and to increase the survival rate in the hatchery. Farmers can be attracted through extension services, technical support, training to the farmers, improvement in aqua-mechanization, and market security, which will improve the economy and food security.

• Husam Eldin Sadig

Longitudinal surveys collect data from the sampled units on multiple occasions. At some data collection points, some sample members might, for any reason, not participate. This, leads to reduction in the data that were initially sought by the survey researcher. Also, if those who do not participate have different answers to the survey questions than those who participate, survey results that are only based on answers provided by those who participate, may be misleading. In any case, survey results might not be accurate. Thus, people who analyse the data sometimes try to compensate for non-participation by allowing the data provided by some participants, who are in some sense 'similar' to the non-participants, to have greater influence on the results. Survey organisations try to make this simple for data users by calculating the measures of the influence that each participant should have. These measures are referred to as 'weights'. The weights are thought to reduce the potential error due to non-participation by increasing the influence of participants who appear to be similar to those who did not participate. However, the existing approach of preparing the weights in longitudinal surveys produces a single set of weights. This set of weights is designed for analyses of data from all data collection points. Nonetheless, since just one set of weights is available, analyses of data from subsets of data collection points will be forced to use it too. However, in the latter case, the potential error in the results might not be reduced as anticipated since the weights were not created specifically for the analysis of data from a subset of data collection points. Therefore, the existing approach may benefit from examining alternatives. This research tests an alternative approach of preparing additional sets of weights, created to compensate for the data that are missing due to sample members not participating in specific combinations of data collection points. A relevant combination of data collection points may consist of ones where survey questions were asked on the same subject. I find that this approach to preparing weights is more successful in reducing the error in survey results than the single set of weights approach. Abstract In longitudinal studies, analysis can be based on any one of a large number of wave-combinations. However, only one set of non-response weights (often based on respondents from all waves up to the latest) is typically offered on public use data files. We refer to this as a single weighting strategy (SWS). This paper uses data from the British Household Panel Survey to illustrate the limitations of the SWS. We evaluate the effect of designing weights based on response to wave-combinations concerned with the same module of questions. The analysis shows that the use of SWS may lead to an unnecessary loss of respondents if used with a different combination of waves. This leads to less precision on some, but not all, of the survey estimates.

El objetivo de la presente investigación tiene como finalidad explorar si el sexo de los empleados de las alcaldías de Manizales, Colombia y de Zacatecas, México, determina que exista una comunicación entre ellos por medio de WhatsApp con el propósito de compartir información laboral a través de esta aplicación. La necesidad de investigar si el sexo es un factor que influye en el uso de esta aplicación, según los entornos laborales en los que se desenvuelven los trabajadores burócratas, es debido a que en la actualidad se busca insertar a las personas a las innovaciones tecnológicas y no a las tecnologías según las necesidades de la sociedad. La inserción del WhatsApp como medio de interacción entre los diferentes actores que conforman la estructura organizacional municipal, es algo que se debe estudiar para conocer sus efectos al interior de estos espacios. Se aplicó un instrumento cuantitativo, del cual se tomaron 3 variables para la elaboración de esta investigación y que respondieron 164 empleados de la alcaldía de Manizales y 201 trabajadores de la presidencia municipal de Zacatecas. Para la obtención del estadístico de Pearson se usó el software libre GNUPSPP, se confirmaron las contingencias con la prueba de hipótesis Kruskal-Wallis con el propósito de describir si el sexo influye para que se dé un uso al WhatsApp como medio de intercambio de datos laborales entre los burócratas municipales de estos dos lugares. Se concluyó que el sexo sí influye para que los trabajadores compartan información por medio de la aplicación para el caso de Manizales y que se debe de investigar cuáles son las causas socio-culturales. No obstante, en Zacatecas no se halló tal distinción, pero sí utilizan el WhatsApp para intercambiar información entre los empleados.

Background Strengthening infection prevention and control (IPC) is essential to combat healthcare-associated infections, antimicrobial resistance, and prevent and respond to outbreaks. Aim To assess national IPC programmes worldwide according to the World Health Organization (WHO) IPC core components. Methods Between June 1, 2017 and November 30, 2018, we conducted a multi-country, cross-sectional study based on semi-structured interviews with national IPC focal points of countries that pledged to the WHO "Clean Care is Safer Care" challenge. We summarized results and differences between regions and country income levels using descriptive statistics. Findings Eighty-eight of 103 (85.4%) eligible countries participated; 22.7% were low-income, 19.3% lower-middle-income, 23.9% upper-middle-income, and 34.1% high-income economies. A national IPC programme existed in 62.5%, but only 26.1% had a dedicated budget. National guidelines were available in 67.0%, but only 36.4% and 21.6% of countries had an implementation strategy and evaluated compliance with guidelines, respectively. Undergraduate IPC curriculum and in-service and postgraduate IPC training were reported by 35.2%, 54.5% and 42% of countries, respectively. Healthcare-associated infection surveillance was reported by 46.6% of countries, with significant differences ranging from 83.3% (high-income) to 0% (low-income) (p<0.001); monitoring and feedback of IPC indicators was reported by 65.9%. Only 12.5% of countries had all core components in place. Conclusion Most countries have IPC programme and guidelines, but many less have invested adequate resources and translated them in implementation and monitoring, particularly in low-income countries. Leadership support at the national and global level is needed to achieve implementation of the core components in all countries.

A general survey was accomplished among beekeepers in 2019 to investigate the determinants and resource use efficiency of honey production at Chitwan, Nepal. The information was primarily collected through 60 Apis mellifera beekeepers registered in bee zone, Chitwan. They were selected for interview by simple random sampling technique. Interview using semi-structured questionnaire schedule was carried out for primary data. Cobb Douglas production function, multiple regression, and paired t-test were used for the analysis of collected data. Multiple regression model revealed that family labor (p=0.68), age(p=0.007), family size (p=0.001), experience (p=0.007), harvesting (p=0.000) and maintenance of flowering plants (p=0.057) have significant effect on honeybee productivity. Labour cost and migration cost had positive coefficient and significant relation at 1% level of significance with gross return whereas expenses on baiting materials had positive coefficient and significant relation at 5% level of significance with the gross return. Thirty-six percentage of total visit for foraging of honeybees was contributed by East Chitwan. The overall productivity of honey in 2019 AD (24.06 kg/hive) was found to be 29% lower than that of 2018 AD. Labour cost and migration cost were underutilized and are required for increment by 3.51% and 71.16% respectively regarding revenue maximization and cost on sugar, drug and comb foundation was over-utilized and needed to be reduced by 30.65%. The efficient use of inputs could make it a profitable and viable commercial enterprise.

Objective - This research aims to map and identify the areas vulnerable to flood in Central Java Province, Indonesia, using Geography Information System (GIS) and value the economic impact on flood mitigation using Contingent Valuation Methods (CVM). Methodology/Technique - The data regarding geographical, demographical, socio-economic, and topographical condition collected from local governments in Central Java Province, Meteorology and Geophysics Board, the Statistical Bureau, and Planning and Development Boar. Findings - Spatial analysis with GIS provides evidence that Surakarta, Sragen, and Sukoharjo districts are more vulnerable to flood than other districts in Central Java Province. This evidence points the need to conduct a thorough study on these areas. Novelty - This research contributes to empirical study, methodology, and policy implications. Type of Paper: Empirical Keywords: Spatial Analysis; Flood Impact; Local Wisdom; Economic Valuation; Willingness to Pay. JEL Classification: C21, Q51, Q54.

Background The goal of this article was to research the psychometric properties of the WHOQOL-BREF(PT) instrument in a sample of elderly citizens residing in a rural area in their own homes or at family members' or friends' homes and to compare the results: (i) to those reported by the team of Portuguese researchers that undertaken the instrument's translation/validation to the Portuguese language and (ii) to those reported internationally by the World Health Organization Quality of Life group. An overall quality of life scoring (QOL 24 —all facets) is also proposed in this article as novelty. The correlation level between QOL 24 and the instrument's general facet was also investigated. Methods This was a cross-sectional study with a sample of 351 elderly citizens (46.4% males and 53.6% females) randomly selected from the official dataset of the Local Health Unit of Baixo Alentejo. All the data were collected by health professionals at the participants' homes following the structured interview methodology and using the WHOQOL-BREF(PT) instrument. Three different structural equation models were developed: (i) a first-order confirmatory factor analysis, to assess the instrument's psychometric properties; (ii) a hierarchical second-order confirmatory factor analysis model, to allow determining the QOL 24 scoring; and (iii) a more generic structural equation model, to investigate the correlation level between QOL 24 and the instrument's general facet. Results The WHOQOL-BREF(PT) showed an "almost very good" goodness of fit (comparative fit index of 0.949 and Tucker-Lewis index of 0.943), an adequate internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha: from 0.64 to 0.90; composite reliability: from 0.59 to 0.88) and tolerable convergent validity (average variance extracted: from 0.374 to 0.614). However, discriminant validity was not reached because strong correlations between the first-order factors (four QOL domains) were obtained, together with low values of the average variance extracted. The scoring of QOL domains and QOL 24 , determined as weighted averages (proposed in this article as novelty) were significantly different than those determined as unweighted averages. The standardized correlation coefficient between QOL 24 and the instrument's general facet was of 0.89 (statistically highly significant). Conclusions The WHOQOL-BREF(PT) is a psychometrically sound instrument to assess the QOL of the considered population sample. However, the QOL domains were found strongly intertwined. More studies are necessary to validate the weighted average scoring strategy of QOL domains and QOL 24 . Concurrent validity between QOL 24 and the instrument's general facet was considered as "strong".

Climate change is a serious concern for the agricultural sector given that this sector is highly dependent on climate conditions. Moreover, farmersʼ adaptation process under changing climate can be explained by the psychological factors and the incorporation of socio-environmental background. Therefore, the current study aimed at socio-cognitive perceptions and extended protection motivation theory (PMT) as the basis. This paper estimated the influence of cognitive factors on individualsʼ views and decisions regarding climate change adaptation. Data from this study came from a survey with 245 rural farmers in temperate mount areas of Fars province, Iran. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to estimate the different factors. Results showed that three core elements of the theory, namely, risk evaluation, adaptation evaluation, and maladaptation, were the statistically significant factors that could directly explain farmersʼ adaptation decisions to adopt appropriate coping strategies under changing climate. Findings also suggested that another structural factor, adaptation incentives, had a statistically significant influence on adaptation decision-making among farmers. The study proposed valuable insights on social discourse to promote adaptation. Findings strongly offered that social discourse should focus more strongly on confirming the truth and timeliness of information that individuals gained. Eventually, further investigations are necessary to conduct the measurement model in other cultures and geographical areas and see how socio-environmental components can influence risk evaluation and adaptation evaluation.

• Rasmin Simbolon
• Abdul Hasan Saragih
• Julaga Situmorang

In the era of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 pandemic and the development of information technology affecting student learning styles, notably high school students. Researchers in the field of education are competing to find effective and efficient learning models today. This study intends to answer these challenges in a literature review by offering a new learning model based on hypercontent from the synthesis of the ICARE and Blended Learning models. The stages of this new learning model offer an introduction, connection, learning resources, collaboration, independence, celebration, and assessment. The development of learning tools follows the systematic steps of the Borg and Gall development model, with to propose QR code applications on smartphones.

• Tendu Hilal Goktug

İçmeler Bay' recreational coast, Dilek Peninsula Büyük Menderes Delta National Park, was surveyed to determine visitor-sourced litter types and cleanliness levels. Litter types and pollution were compared in terms of recreational uses and esthetic quality. Visitors rated the offensiveness of 17 several litter items that were found in the Bay. Finally, visitors evaluated the cleanliness and crowdedness of the Bay and the adequacy of trash cans. Litters were counted at 192 samplings, and 384 questionnaires were completed from July to August 2018. The results indicate that OR (Organic litter) (53.14%) and PL (plastic) (29.06%) were the common litter material in the litter composition. The cleanliness level was C (Dirty) (grades on A-D). A weakly significant negative correlation (r = –0.463, p = 0.000) was found between the offensiveness ranks of the litter types and the abundance of these litter types in the park. The park was dirty (69%), crowded (72.7%), and the numbers of facilities were insufficient (59.4%) according to most visitors. For minimizing the environmental and social impacts of littering, it is considered that the visitor management plan should be prepared urgently and littering management actions should be defined in this plan. Eight categories of direct and indirect management actions are recommended.

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Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44823744_Elementary_Survey_Sampling